Animal welfare is the physical and psychological Comparative psychology usually refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. However, psychologists and scientists do not always agree on this definition. Comparative psychology has also been described as branch of psychology in which emphasis is placed on cross-species comparisons—including human-to- state of non-human animals.[1] The term animal welfare can also mean human concern for animal welfare or a position in a debate on animal ethics and animal rights Animal rights, also referred to as animal liberation, is the idea that the most basic interests of non-human animals should be afforded the same consideration as the similar interests of human beings. Advocates approach the issue from different philosophical positions, but agree that animals should be viewed as non-human persons and members of the.[2]

Systematic concern for animal welfare can be based on awareness that non-human animals are sentient Sentience is the ability to feel or perceive. The term is used in science and philosophy, and in the study of artificial intelligence. Sentience is used in the study of consciousness to describe the ability to have sensations or experiences, known to Western philosophers as "qualia". In eastern philosophy, sentience is a metaphysical and that consideration should be given to their well-being, especially when they are used for food, in animal testing, as pets, or in other ways.[3] These concerns can include how animals are killed for food, how they are used for scientific research, how they are kept as pets, and how human activities affect the survival of endangered species.

An ancient object of concern in some civilizations, animal welfare began to take a larger place in western Western culture refers to cultures of European origin public policy in 19th century Britain. Today it is a significant focus of interest or activity in veterinary science, in ethics, and in animal welfare organizations.

There are two forms of criticism of the concept of animal welfare, coming from diametrically opposite positions. One view, dating back centuries, asserts that animals are not consciously aware and hence are unable to experience poor welfare. The other view is based on the animal rights Animal rights, also referred to as animal liberation, is the idea that the most basic interests of non-human animals should be afforded the same consideration as the similar interests of human beings. Advocates approach the issue from different philosophical positions, but agree that animals should be viewed as non-human persons and members of the position that animals should not be regarded as property and any use of animals by humans is unacceptable. Some authorities thus treat animal welfare and animal rights as two opposing positions.[2] Accordingly, some animal right proponents argue that the perception of better animal welfare facilitates continued and increased exploitation of animals.[4][5] Others see the increasing concern for animal welfare as incremental steps towards animal rights.

Contents

Definitions

In animal ethics Ethics is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good vs. bad, noble vs. ignoble, right vs. wrong, and matters of justice, love, peace, and virtue, the term animal welfare often means animal welfarism.

In Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary, animal welfare is defined as "the avoidance of abuse and exploitation of animals by humans by maintaining appropriate standards of accommodation, feeding and general care, the prevention and treatment of disease and the assurance of freedom from harassment, and unnecessary discomfort and pain."[6]

Donald Broom defines the welfare of an animal as "its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment. This state includes how much it is having to do to cope, the extent to which it is succeeding in or failing to cope, and its associated feelings." He states that "Welfare will vary over a continuum from very good to very poor and studies of welfare will be most effective if a wide range of measures is used."[7]

Yew-Kwang Ng Yew-Kwang Ng is an economist at Monash University. He graduated with a Bachelor of Commerce from Nanyang University in 1966 and later a Ph.D. from Sydney University in 1971 defines animal welfare in terms of welfare economics Welfare economics is a branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to simultaneously determine allocative efficiency within an economy and the income distribution associated with it.[citation needed] It analyzes social welfare, however measured, in terms of economic activities of the individuals that comprise the theoretical society: "Welfare biology is the study of living things and their environment with respect to their welfare (defined as net happiness, or enjoyment minus suffering). Despite difficulties of ascertaining and measuring welfare and relevancy to normative issues, welfare biology is a positive science."[8]

Animal welfarism

Animal welfarism, also known simply as welfarism or animal welfare,[9][10] is the position that it is morally acceptable for humans to use non-human animals, provided that adverse effects on animal welfare are minimized as far as possible, short of not using the animals at all. An example of welfarist thought is Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall's meat manifesto.[citation needed] Point three of eight is:

Think about the animals that the meat you eat comes from. Are you at all concerned about how they have been treated? Have they lived well? Have they been fed on safe, appropriate foods? Have they been cared for by someone who respects them and enjoys contact with them? Would you like to be sure of that? Perhaps it’s time to find out a bit more about where the meat you eat comes from. Or to buy from a source that reassures you about these points.[11]

Robert Garner describes the welfarist position as the most widely-held in modern society.[9] He states that one of the best attempts to clarify this position is given by Robert Nozick Robert Nozick was an American political philosopher, most prominent in the 1970s and 1980s. He is best known for his book Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974), a libertarian answer to John Rawls's A Theory of Justice (1971). He was a professor at Harvard University and his other work involved decision theory and epistemology:[12]

Consider the following (too minimal) position about the treat­ment of animals. So that we can easily refer to it, let us label this position "utilitarianism for animals, Kantianism for people." It says: (1) maximize the total happiness of all living beings; (2) place stringent side constraints on what one may do to human beings. Human beings may not be used or sacrificed for the bene­fit of others; animals may be used or sacrificed for the benefit of other people or animals only if those benefits are greater than the loss inflicted.[13]

Welfarism is often contrasted with the animal rights Animal rights, also referred to as animal liberation, is the idea that the most basic interests of non-human animals should be afforded the same consideration as the similar interests of human beings. Advocates approach the issue from different philosophical positions, but agree that animals should be viewed as non-human persons and members of the and animal liberation positions, which hold that animals should not be used by humans, and should not be regarded as their property.[14] However, it has been argued that both welfarism and animal liberation only make sense if you assume that animals have "subjective welfare".[15] There is some evidence that the observed difference between human belief in animal welfare and animal rights originates from two distinct attitudes An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event-- this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously towards animals: (1) attitudes towards suffering; and (2) reverence for animals.[16]

Motivation

Motivations to improve the welfare of animals stems from sympathy Sympathy is a social affinity in which one person stands with another person, closely understanding his or her feelings. Also known as empathic concern, it is the feeling of compassion or concern for another, the wish to see them better off or happier. Although empathy and sympathy are often used interchangeably, a subtle variation in ordinary and empathy The English word is derived from the Greek word ἐμπάθεια , "physical affection, passion, partiality" which comes from ἐν (en), "in, at" + πάθος (pathos), "passion" or "suffering". The term was adapted by Rudolf Lotze and Robert Vischer to create the German word Einfühlung ("feeling. It can also be based on self-interest. For example, animal producers might improve welfare in order to meet consumer demand for products from high welfare systems. Typically, stronger concern is given to animals that are useful to humans (farm animals, pets etc.) than those that are not (pests, wild animals etc.). The different level of sentience that various species possess, or the perception of such differences, also create a shifting level of concern. Somewhat related to this is size, with larger animals being favored.

There is some evidence to suggest that empathy is an inherited trait. Women have greater concern for animals than men in some societies, possibly the result of it being an evolutionarily beneficial Natural selection is the process by which certain heritable traits—those that make it more likely for an organism to survive and successfully reproduce —become more common in a population over successive generations. It is a key mechanism of evolution trait in societies where women take care of domesticated animals while men hunt. Interestingly, more women have animal phobias than men. But animal phobias are at least partly genetically determined, and this indicates that attitudes towards animals have a genetic component. Also, children exhibit empathy for animals at a very early age , when external influences cannot be an adequate explanation.[17]

Laws punishing cruelty to animals Cruelty to animals is the infliction of suffering or harm upon animals, other than humans, for purposes other than self-defense. More narrowly, it can be harm for specific gain, such as killing animals for food or fur use. Diverging viewpoints are held by jurisdictions throughout the world tend to not just be based on welfare concerns but the belief that such behavior has repercussions toward the treatment of other humans by the animal abusers. Another argument against animal cruelty is based on aesthetics Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as "critical.

External factors that affect people's concern for animal welfare include affluence, education, cultural heritage and religious beliefs. Increased affluence in many regions for the past few decades afforded consumers the disposable income to purchase products from high welfare systems.[18] The adaptation of more economically efficient farming systems in these regions were at the expense of animal welfare and to the financial benefit of consumers, both of which were factors in driving the demand for higher welfare for farm animals.

Interest in animal welfare continues to grow, with increasing attention being paid to it by the media, governmental and non-governmental organizations. The volume of scientific research on animal welfare has also increased significantly.[19]

History, principles, practice

See also: Animal rights#Development of the idea Animal rights, also referred to as animal liberation, is the idea that the most basic interests of non-human animals should be afforded the same consideration as the similar interests of human beings. Advocates approach the issue from different philosophical positions, but agree that animals should be viewed as non-human persons and members of the

Systematic concern for the well-being of other animals probably arose in the Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) which was centred mostly in the western part of the Indian Subcontinent and which flourished around the Indus river basin.[n 1] Primarily centered along the Indus and the Punjab region, the civilization extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River as the religious ancestors return in animal form, and that animals must therefore be killed with the respect due to a human. This belief is exemplified in the existing religion, Jainism Jainism is an ancient religion of India that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to progress the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called Jina (, and in varieties of other Indian religions Indian religions are the related religious traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent, namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, inclusive of their sub-schools and various related traditions. They form a subgroup of the larger classes of "Eastern religions" and also Indo-European religions . Indian religions have. Other religions, specially those with roots in the Abrahamic religions The Abrahamic religions are historically the world's three primary monotheistic faiths of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which share a common origin and values. The origins of Abrahamic religion are found in Judaism, which began in the first and second millennium BCE in ancient Israel and Judah during which time the Hebrew Bible was composed, treat animals as the property of their owners, codifying rules for their care and slaughter Slaughter is the term used to describe the killing and butchering of animals, usually for food. Commonly it refers to killing and butchering of domestic livestock intended to limit the distress, pain and fear animals experience under human control.

From the outset in 1822, when British MP Richard Martin Martin was born in Ballynahinch, County Galway, the only son of Robert Martin Fitz Anthony of Birchall, County Galway, and Bridget Barnwall, a daughter of Baron Trimlestown. Martin was raised at Dangan House, situated on the Corrib River, four miles upriver from the town of Galway shepherded a bill through Parliament offering protection from cruelty to cattle, horses, and sheep (earning himself the nickname Humanity Dick), the welfare approach has had human morality, and humane behaviour, at its central concern. Martin was among the founders of the world's first animal welfare organization, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is a charity in England and Wales that promotes animal welfare. It is the oldest and largest animal welfare organisation in the world and is one of the largest charities in the UK. Queen Elizabeth II is its patron, or SPCA, in 1824. In 1840, Queen Victoria Victoria was the Queen regnant of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837, and the first Empress of India of the British Raj from 1 May 1876, until her death. Her reign as the Queen lasted 63 years and 7 months, longer than that of any other British monarch before or since, and her reign is the longest of any female gave the society her blessing, and it became the RSPCA The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is a charity in England and Wales that promotes animal welfare. It is the oldest and largest animal welfare organisation in the world and is one of the largest charities in the UK. Queen Elizabeth II is its patron. The society used members' donations to employ a growing network of inspectors, whose job was to identify abusers, gather evidence, and report them to the authorities.

But significant progress in animal welfare did not take place until the late 20th century.[20] In 1965, the UK government commissioned an investigation - led by Professor Roger Brambell - into the welfare of intensively farmed animals, partly in response to concerns raised in Ruth Harrison Ruth Harrison was a leading British animal welfare activist and author's 1964 book, Animal Machines. On the basis of Professor Brambell's report, the UK government set up the Farm Animal Welfare Advisory Committee in 1967, which became the Farm Animal Welfare Council The Farm Animal Welfare Council is an independent advisory body established by the Government of Great Britain in 1979. Its terms of reference are to keep under review the welfare of farm animals on agricultural land, at market, in transit and at the place of slaughter and advise Government of any changes that may be necessary. The council in 1979. The committee's first guidelines recommended that animals require the freedoms to "stand up, lie down, turn around, groom themselves and stretch their limbs". The guidelines have since been elaborated to become known as the Five Freedoms:[21]

A number of animal welfare organisations are campaigning to achieve a Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare (UDAW) at the United Nations. In principle, the Universal Declaration will call on the United Nations to recognise animals as sentient beings, capable of experiencing pain and suffering, and to recognise that animal welfare is an issue of importance as part of the social development of nations worldwide. The campaign to achieve the UDAW is being co-ordinated by the World Society for the Protection of Animals, with a core working group including Compassion in World Farming, the RSPCA, and the Humane Society International (the international branch of HSUS The Humane Society of the United States , based in Washington, D.C., is the largest animal advocacy organization in the world. In 2007, it had 10.6 million members, and a budget of US$120 million).[22]

Farm animals

Concern for farm animals is mainly focused on factory farming Factory farming is the practice of raising livestock in confinement at high stocking density, where a farm operates as a factory — a practice typical in industrial farming by agribusinesses. The main product of this industry is meat, milk and eggs for human consumption, where farm animals are raised in confinement at high stocking density. Issues revolve around the limiting of natural behavior in animals (see battery cage, veal Veal is the meat of young cattle . Though veal can be produced from a calf of either sex and any breed, most veal comes from male calves of dairy cattle breeds. Veal has a tender texture and gestation crate Between 60 and 70 percent of sows are confined in crates during pregnancy in the United States, each pregnancy lasting four months, with an average of 2.5 litters every year. Sows, which can weigh 600 lbs, spend most of their three or four years of adult life in crates, giving birth to between five and eight litters. As the sows grow larger, they), and invasive procedures such as debeaking Debeaking, also called beak trimming is the partial removal of the beak of poultry, especially chickens and turkeys. Most commonly, the beak is shortened permanently, although regrowth can occur. The trimmed lower beak is somewhat longer than the upper beak. USA's UEP guidelines suggest that in egg laying strains of chickens, the length of the and mulesing Mulesing is a skilled surgical task that involves the removal of strips of wool-bearing skin from around the breech of a sheep. Mulesing is common practice in Australia as a way to reduce the incidence of flystrike (myiasis) on Merino sheep in regions where flystrike is common. Other issues include methods of animal slaughter Slaughter is the term used to describe the killing and butchering of animals, usually for food. Commonly it refers to killing and butchering of domestic livestock, especially ritual slaughter Ritual slaughter is the practice of slaughtering livestock for meat in a ritual manner. This may be prescribed by a religious dietary laws, notably Jewish Shechita and Islamic Ḏabīḥah.

While the killing of animals need not necessarily involve suffering, the general public considers killing an animal an act that reduces its welfare.[23] This leads to concerns with premature slaughtering, such as the chick culling. This applies in a lesser extent to all food animals.

Animal welfare science is an emerging field that seeks to answer questions raised by the use of animals, such as whether hens are frustrated when confined in cages, or whether the psychological well-being of animals in laboratories can be maintained.[24]

Welfare laws

5 states have enacted laws in support of humane farming.[citation needed]

On November 5, 2002, Florida voters passed Amendment 10, an amendment to the Florida Constitution banning the confinement of pregnant pigs in gestation crates. The Amendment passed by a margin of 55% for and 45% against.[25] On November 7, 2006, Arizona voters passed Proposition 204 with 62% support. The measure prohibits the confinement of calves in veal crates and breeding sows in gestation crates. On June 28, 2007, Oregon Governor The Governor of Oregon is the top executive of the government of the U.S. state of Oregon. The title of governor was also applied to the office of Oregon's chief executive during the provisional and U.S. territorial governments Ted Kulongoski Theodore R. "Ted" Kulongoski is an American politician, currently serving his second term as the 36th Governor of Oregon. As a Democrat, he has served in both houses of the Oregon Legislative Assembly, as the state Insurance Commissioner, the Attorney General, and an Associate Justice on the Oregon Supreme Court. As of January 2009, signed a measure into law prohibiting the confinement of pigs in gestation crates (SB 694, 74th Leg. Assembly, Regular Session).[26] On May 14, 2008, Colorado Governor The Governor of the State of Colorado is the head of the executive branch of Colorado's government and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Colorado General Assembly, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except Bill Ritter August William "Bill" Ritter is an American politician of the Democratic Party, and the 41st and current Governor of the state of Colorado. Before his election in 2006, he served as the district attorney for Denver. He is the first native-born governor of Colorado since 1975, as well as being the first Democratic governor to serve with a signed into law a bill, SB 201, that phases out gestation crates and veal crates.[27][28]

Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, and Austria have all banned battery cages for egg-laying hens. The entire European Union is phasing out battery cages by 2012.[29]

Laboratory animals

In animal testing Animal testing, also known as animal experimentation, animal research, and in vivo testing, is the use of non-human animals in experiments. Worldwide it is estimated that 50 to 100 million vertebrate animals are used annually—from zebrafish to non-human primates. Invertebrates, mice, rats, birds, fish, frogs, and animals not yet weaned are not, the well-being of individual animals tend to be overriden by the potential benefits their sacrifice can bring to a large number of other animals or people. This utilitarian approach might allow intense suffering to be inflicted on individual animals if the trade-off is considered worthwhile, while a more welfare-based approach would afford all animals the right to a minimum standard of welfare.

Other welfare issues includes the quality of animal sources Animals used by laboratories for testing purposes are largely supplied by dealers who specialize in the trade. These include breeders who supply purpose-bred animals; businesses that trade in wild animals; and dealers who supply animals sourced from pounds, auctions, and newspaper ads. Animal shelters may also supply the laboratories directly and housing conditions.

Criticisms

At one time, many people denied that animals could feel anything, and thus the concept of animal welfare was meaningless. For example, many Cartesians Cartesians viewed the mind as being wholly separate from the corporeal body. Sensation and the perception of reality were thought to be, potentially, lies, with the only truth to be had in the existence of a metaphysical mind. Such a mind can perhaps interact with a physical body, but it does not exist in the body, nor even in the same physical were of this opinion. Descartes wrote that animals act "without consciousness", much like a machine.[30]. In addition, there are accounts of Descartes visiting slaughter houses to observe how animals died. Believing that the animals were devoid of sentience, Descartes thought the death throes of animals was akin to "taking apart a spring-driven clock"[citation needed]. In the Discourse The Discourse on the Method is a philosophical and mathematical treatise published by René Descartes in 1637. Its full name is Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One's Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences . The Discourse on Method is best known as the source of the famous quotation "Je pense, donc je suis" ("I, published in 1637, Descartes wrote that the ability to reason and use language involves being able to respond in complex ways to all the "contingencies of life", something that animals "clearly cannot do". He argued from this that any sounds animals make do not constitute language, but are simply "automatic responses to external stimuli".[31]

Animal rights advocates, such as Gary L. Francione and Tom Regan Tom Regan is an American philosopher who specializes in animal rights theory. He was professor emeritus of philosophy at North Carolina State University, where he taught from 1967 until his retirement in 2001, argue that the animal welfare position (advocating for the betterment of the condition of animals, but without abolishing animal use) is inconsistent in logic and ethically unacceptable. However, there are some animal rights groups, such as PETA People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals is an animal rights organization based in Norfolk, Virginia, USA. With two million members and supporters worldwide, it claims the status of the largest animal rights group in the world. Ingrid Newkirk is its international president, which support animal welfare measures in the short term to alleviate animal suffering until all animal use is ended. According to PETA's Ingrid Newkirk Ingrid Newkirk is a British-born animal rights activist and president of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PeTA), the world's largest animal rights organization. She is the author of several books, including Free the Animals (2000) and Making Kind Choices (2005) in an interview with Wikinews Wikinews is a free-content news source wiki and a project of the Wikimedia Foundation. The site works through collaborative journalism. Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has distinguished Wikinews from Wikipedia by saying "on Wikinews, each story is to be written as a news story as opposed to an encyclopedia article." The neutral point of, there are two issues in animal welfare and animal rights. "If I only could have one thing, it would be to end suffering," said Newkirk. "If you could take things from animals and kill animals all day long without causing them suffering, then I would take it...Everybody should be able to agree that animals should not suffer if you kill them or steal from them by taking the fur off their backs or take their eggs, whatever. But you shouldn’t put them through torture to do that."[32]

Abolitionism (animal rights) Abolitionism within the animal rights movement is the idea that the legal ownership of nonhuman animals is unjust, and that it must be abolished before animal suffering can be substantially reduced. The abolitionist position is that focusing on animal welfare not only fails to challenge animal suffering, but may actually prolong it by making the holds that focusing on animal welfare not only fails to challenge animal suffering, but may actually prolong it by making the exercise of property rights over animals appear less unattractive. The abolitionists' objective is to secure a moral and legal paradigm shift, whereby animals are no longer regarded as property.

See also

References

  1. ^ Hewson, Caroline J. (2003). "What is animal welfare? Common definitions and their practical consequences". The Canadian Veterinary Journal. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC340178/#r11-23.
  2. ^ a b Francione, Gary Lawrence (1996). Rain without thunder: the ideology of the animal rights movement. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=HZTpej7dGGEC&oi=fnd&pg=PP13&dq=animal+welfare+animal+rights&ots=Vz2Jf1Hsbb&sig=vEEDbE7LH3KtHtb5Z6S15-HJ82w#v=onepage&q=animal%20welfare%20animal%20rights&f=false.
  3. ^ Draft of the Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare
  4. ^ Garner, Robert. Animal Ethics. Polity Press, 2005; Regan, Tom. The Case for Animal Rights, University of California Press, 1983.
  5. ^ Francione, Gary. Animals, Property, and the Law. Temple University Press, 1995.
  6. ^ See http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Animal+welfare
  7. ^ Broom, D. M. (1996). "Animal welfare defined in terms of attempts to cope with the environment". Acta agriculturae Scandinavica. Section A, Animal science. http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/NSTLQK_NSTL_QK9506789.aspx.
  8. ^ Yew-Kwang Ng (1995). "Towards Welfare Biology: Evolutionary Economics of Animal Consciousness and Suffering". Journal Biology and Philosophy (Springer Netherlands) 10 (3): 255-285. doi:10.1007/BF00852469. http://www.springerlink.com/content/uj81758r187l7777/.
  9. ^ a b Garner, Robert. Animal Ethics. Polity Press, 2005, pp. 15-16.
  10. ^ Bekoff, Marc (2009). "Animal Emotions, Animal Sentience, Animal Welfare, and Animal Rights". http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/animal-emotions/200909/animal-emotions-animal-sentience-animal-welfare-and-animal-rights.
  11. ^ Fearnley-Whittingstall, Hugh (2009). "My Meat Manifesto". http://www.rivercottage.net/FoodMatters/32/MeatandRight.aspx.
  12. ^ Garner, Robert. Animal Ethics. Polity Press, 2005, pp. 72
  13. ^ Nozick, Robert (1974). Anarchy, State, and Utopia. http://www.animal-rights-library.com/texts-m/nozick01.htm.
  14. ^ Garner 2005, p. 15; also see Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation, Random House, 1975; Regan, Tom. The Case for Animal Rights, University of California Press, 1983; Francione, Gary. Animals, Property, and the Law. Temple University Press, 1995; this paperback edition 2007.
  15. ^ Taylor, Angus. Animals and Ethics. Broadview Press, 2003, p. 88; Garner 2005, p. 15.
  16. ^ Meng, Jenia (2009). 'Origins of Attitudes towards Animals'. http://books.google.com/books?id=POosTKAuySUC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage.
  17. ^ Phillips 2009. The Welfare Of Animals: The Silent Majoritypp 50, 52-53.
  18. ^ Phillips 2009. pp 60-63.
  19. ^ Phillips 2009. p 60.
  20. ^ Phillips 2009. p 56.
  21. ^ Five Freedoms Farm Animal Welfare Council
  22. ^ Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare Compassion in World Farming
  23. ^ Phillips 2009. p 10.
  24. ^ Fraser, David. Understanding animal welfare: the science in its cultural context. John Wiley and Sons, 2008, p. 8.
  25. ^ "PorkNet Newsletter". MetaFarms.com, Inc. 2002-11-07. http://www.porknet.com/archive/110702.html#96977. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
  26. ^ "Back door activists gain momentum". Learfield Communications, Inc.. 2007-07-05. http://www.brownfieldnetwork.com/gestalt/go.cfm?objectid=96AD5AA7-BEEA-38F9-4397078DB6063307. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
  27. ^ "Farm Sanctuary Applauds Colorado for Passing Legislation Phasing out Veal and Gestation Crates". Reuters. 2008-05-14. http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS239162+14-May-2008+BW20080514. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
  28. ^ "Farm Animal Welfare Measure Becomes Law". Federation of Animal Science Societies (FASS). 2008-05-14. http://www.fass.org/page.asp?pageID=312. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
  29. ^ "EU bans battery hen cages". BBC News. 1999-01-28. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/264607.stm. Retrieved 2008-09-21.
  30. ^ Midgley, Mary. "Descartes Prisoners", The New Statesman, May 24, 1999.
  31. ^ Descartes, René. Discourse on the Method. First published 1637, cited in Cottingham, John. "Descartes, René" in Honderich, Ted. (ed.) The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 188-192.
  32. ^ Interview with Ingrid Newkirk, David Shankbone, Wikinews, November 20, 2007.

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